Homo Curiosus

History and Philosophy of Curiosity

The curious (1897) — Eugen von Blaas (Italian, 1843–1931)

“I think, at a child’s birth, if a mother could ask a fairy godmother to endow it with the most useful gift, that gift should be curiosity.” — Eleanor Roosevelt

Since childhood, I’ve had a close friend driven by an insatiable curiosity about the world. We spent endless afternoons investigating “mysteries” — from why rocks felt different under a magnifying glass to how the colors of a sunset shifted so seamlessly. For us, learning was an adventure, each discovery leading to another question, another wonder.

But as we grew older, I noticed a change in my friend’s approach to knowledge. The pure, boundless curiosity we once shared gradually gave way to something more calculated. Learning became less about exploring and more about accumulating information, shaped by the pressures of grades, accolades, and career goals. Our conversations shifted too; where once we’d dive into open-ended questions, now the focus was on what knowledge could achieve rather than the thrill of discovery itself. It was as if the love of learning we had grown up with was getting lost beneath the weight of expectations.

This led me to question the very nature of learning and motivation. In this essay, I aim to delve into this shift — from discovery fueled by pure curiosity to a pressured pursuit of information — and examine what we lose when external expectations overshadow the intrinsic joy of learning. By reflecting on the lives of great thinkers who embraced curiosity as their guiding force, perhaps we can rediscover what it means to seek knowledge for the sheer wonder it brings.

“Curiosity is my compass; I can’t imagine life without it.” — Sally Ride

The problem with philosophy

Humanity’s insatiable curiosity — that deep desire to explore, question, and understand the unknown — has driven our progress from simple societies to complex centers of scientific and artistic achievement. This pursuit of knowledge is at the heart of philosophy, a term derived from the Greek philo, meaning “love,” and sophia, meaning “wisdom.” Philosophy, therefore, signifies a love of wisdom and a commitment to understanding the deeper truths of existence.

While knowledge is undeniably valuable, an obsession with merely accumulating facts can obscure the values that connect ideas and uncover true understanding. Sociologists such as Pierre Bourdieu have observed that academic disciplines, including philosophy, increasingly prioritize highly specialized and niche questions to accumulate “academic capital” — prestige, recognition, and institutional rewards (Bourdieu, 1988).

Some have even argued that society’s strong emphasis on gaining academic capital may be a cause of the high rates of cheating and plagiarism in schools. Since gaining academic capital may be the one way for those in academia to move up in their field, greater stress is placed on this form of capital, and therefore pressure can arise to do better than a scholar thinks he or she is capable of, leading them to cheat or plagiarize (Gallant, 2018).

For instance, contemporary philosophical debates on topics like the intricacies of higher-order logic, the nuances of phenomenological analysis, or the deep dives into the philosophy of language often engage with questions that have limited practical application or societal relevance, driven more by the pursuit of scholarly acclaim than by genuine curiosity.

Additionally, Robert Merton’s “Matthew Effect” illustrates how established scholars gain disproportionate recognition, reinforcing existing hierarchies and discouraging innovative or interdisciplinary approaches (Merton, 1968).

Consequently, philosophy risks becoming an echo chamber of narrow inquiries, where the intrinsic joy of exploring profound and meaningful questions is overshadowed by the pressures to publish and attain academic prestige. This shift mirrors the broader educational system’s move from fostering a love of learning to emphasizing measurable achievements, ultimately undermining the very essence of curiosity-driven exploration.

The Development of Curiosity and Its Impact on Learning

Understanding the roots of curiosity in human development provides insight into its profound impact on learning and intellectual growth. Jean Piaget, a pioneering developmental psychologist, argued that children are not passive recipients of information but active constructors of knowledge. He proposed that children constantly formulate hypotheses, conduct experiments, and reassess their understanding based on their observations, effectively engaging in a scientific process from a young age (Piaget, 1952). This intrinsic drive to make sense of the world underscores the fundamental role of curiosity in cognitive development.

Research on children’s exploratory behavior supports Piaget’s view, revealing that curiosity manifests through interactions with novel and familiar stimuli. For instance, studies have observed how children engage with new toys, seeking to understand their functions and properties. This behavior is not random but reflects a systematic effort to acquire knowledge (Jirout & Klahr, 2012). Interestingly, the level of curiosity can be influenced by emotional states; children experiencing anxiety may exhibit reduced exploratory behavior, suggesting that a supportive environment is crucial for fostering curiosity (Engel, 2011).

Curiosity in adolescence continues to play a significant role in academic performance. A study involving 568 high school students found that those who demonstrated high levels of curiosity, combined with motivation and creativity, showed substantial variations in math and science scores on standardized exams (Ainley, 1998). This indicates that curiosity not only drives the desire to learn but also enhances the ability to acquire and apply complex knowledge.

Philosophically, curiosity is regarded as an essential intellectual virtue. It motivates individuals to seek deeper understanding and fosters a sense of wonder about the world. Curiosity is linked to moral virtues as well, as it encourages empathy and a genuine interest in others (Kidd & Hayden, 2015). However, some argue that contemporary education systems may inadvertently suppress curiosity by emphasizing rote learning and standardized testing over inquiry and exploration (Engel, 2015).

Neurological studies have begun to unravel the mechanisms behind curiosity. Research by Kidd and Hayden (2015) suggests that curiosity operates similarly to basic drive states, such as hunger, motivating individuals to seek information just as they would seek food. Their work indicates that curiosity activates the brain’s reward circuits, specifically areas associated with learning and memory like the hippocampus. This neural activation enhances the ability to retain new information, demonstrating that curiosity not only prompts the search for knowledge but also improves learning outcomes.

Moreover, curiosity has been shown to have a “Goldilocks” effect in early development. Infants tend to focus their attention on stimuli that are neither too simple nor too complex, optimizing their learning experiences (Kidd, Piantadosi, & Aslin, 2012). This preference for moderate complexity allows children to build on existing knowledge without becoming overwhelmed, facilitating efficient cognitive development.

The impact of curiosity extends beyond individual growth; it has societal implications as well. Encouraging curiosity can lead to innovation and critical thinking, essential components for advancement in science, technology, and the arts. Conversely, when curiosity is stifled, there can be a loss of potential breakthroughs and a decrease in intellectual fulfillment.

In conclusion, cultivating curiosity from early childhood through adulthood is vital for personal and societal development. By recognizing the importance of curiosity and creating environments that nurture this intrinsic desire to learn, we can foster a culture of lifelong learning and discovery.

Throughout history, countless individuals have exemplified this philosophical ideal by pursuing knowledge not for accolades or personal gain but out of a genuine passion for discovery and understanding. These pioneers of curiosity-driven exploration have made significant contributions to their respective fields, often overcoming substantial obstacles along the way. Their stories illustrate the profound impact that a love for wisdom can have on both personal fulfillment and the advancement of society.

Mary Anning (1799–1847): The Fossil Hunter

Portrait of Mary Anning by J. M. Donne in 1847 based on an earlier one/Image: public domain on Wikimedia Commons

Mary Anning, a self-taught English fossil collector and paleontologist, spent her life combing the cliffs of Lyme Regis for remnants of ancient creatures. Born into a poor family, she received little formal education, yet her fascination with the natural world propelled her to make some of the most significant geological discoveries of her time. Anning unearthed the first complete Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus fossils, challenging existing scientific beliefs about the history of life on Earth. Despite facing gender biases and financial hardships, she remained devoted to her work, driven not by accolades but by the thrill of unearthing Earth’s prehistoric secrets (McGowan, 2001).

“. . . the extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong. She fixes the bones on a frame with cement and then makes drawings and has them engraved. . . It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour — that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom.”

Emmy Noether (1882–1935): The Mathematical Trailblazer

The development of abstract algebra, which is one of the most important innovations in 20th century mathematics, is largely due to her — Nathan Jacobson

Emmy Noether, a German mathematician, made groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics, including Noether’s Theorem, which has become fundamental in modern physics. Despite facing discrimination in a male-dominated field and often teaching without pay, Noether was wholly absorbed in her mathematical pursuits. Her colleagues noted her lack of interest in personal acclaim; instead, she was driven by a profound love for mathematics and a desire to explore its deepest truths. Noether’s dedication exemplifies how intrinsic motivation can lead to extraordinary achievements (Dick, 1981).

When, at this hour, I think of what made you what you were, two things immediately come to mind . The first is the original, productive force of your mathematical thinking. Like a too ripe fruit, it seemed to burst through the shell of your humanness. You were at once instrument of and receptacle for the intellectual force that surged forth from within you. You were not of clay, harmoniously shaped by God’s artistic hand, but a piece of primordial human rock into which he breathed creative genius. — Hermann Weyl’s speech at Emmy Noether’s funeral

George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943): The Devoted Botanist

Born into slavery, George Washington Carver overcame significant racial barriers to become a renowned scientist and inventor. His fascination with plants and agriculture was evident from a young age, and he devoted his life to understanding how crops could improve the livelihoods of poor farmers. Carver developed hundreds of products from peanuts, sweet potatoes, and other crops, emphasizing sustainable agriculture and soil conservation. He lived modestly, more interested in the process of discovery and helping others than in personal wealth or fame. Carver often spoke about the importance of tuning into nature’s lessons, reflecting his deep-seated curiosity and love of learning (Kremer, 1987).

I wanted to know the name of every stone and flower and insect and bird and beast. I wanted to know where it got its color, where it got its life — but there was no one to tell me.

Mary Somerville (1780–1872): The “Queen of Nineteenth-Century Science”

Mary Somerville, a Scottish polymath, made significant contributions to astronomy and mathematics despite having little formal education. She taught herself multiple languages and complex scientific concepts, driven by an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. Somerville’s writings helped make advanced scientific ideas accessible to the general public, and she became one of the first women to be admitted into the Royal Astronomical Society. Her lifelong dedication to learning exemplifies how curiosity can transcend societal limitations and contribute meaningfully to human understanding (Neeley, 2001).

These individuals embody the essence of philomathy — the love of learning for its own sake. Their accomplishments were not driven by external rewards but by an intrinsic motivation to explore and understand the world. This mindset not only led to personal fulfillment but also to significant contributions that advanced human knowledge.

“So numerous are the objects which meet our view in the heavens, that we cannot imagine a part of space where some light would not strike the eye : but as the fixed stars would not be visible at such distances, if they did not shine by their own light, it is reasonable to infer that they are suns ; and if so, they are in all probability attended by systems of opaque bodies, revolving about them as the planets do about ours.”
― Mary Somerville, Mechanism of the heavens

Isaac Newton: The Epitome of Natural Philosophy

Isaac Newton took this curiosity-driven approach even further, blending mathematics, physics, and theology in his quest to decode the universe. His laws of motion and universal gravitation weren’t just products of data collection but stemmed from an intense desire to understand existence. While developing Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton dedicated countless hours to alchemy, seeking the “philosopher’s stone” — a legendary substance he believed held the key to nature’s secrets. His alchemical writings, filled with coded symbols and mysterious recipes, reflect a mind as immersed in the mystical as in the scientific.

Many of Newton’s unpublished notes concerning alchemy, occult matters, and the biblical apocalypse only resurfaced after his death in 1727. In his own day, church leaders would have viewed many of his ideas on these subjects as heretical. “His descendants made sure very few saw the papers because they were a treasure trove of dirt on the man,” Sarah Dry, author of The Newton Papers: The Strange and True Odyssey of Isaac Newton’s Manuscripts, told Wired in 2014. “… His papers were bursting with evidence for just how heretical his views were” (Dry, 2014).

In fact, Newton spent more time studying biblical texts and theological writings than physics. He was known to attempt to interpret biblical chronologies and calculate precise dates for prophetic events. He believed that deciphering the Bible’s hidden codes was as important as understanding the movement of the planets. In a letter to a colleague, Newton admitted that these mystical interests were not a parallel hobby but were directly connected to his desire to comprehend the divine design behind the natural laws:

“When I wrote my treatise about our system, I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity, and nothing can rejoice me more than to find it useful for that purpose” (Westfall, 1993).

Determined to reconcile science with his theology, he wrote letters to colleagues, debating whether the invisible pull of gravity could align with a divinely structured cosmos. Newton even considered that God might periodically intervene to keep planets on course, which would explain this otherwise mysterious attraction across the void (Westfall, 1993).

His dedication to these diverse areas of knowledge reflects the essence of natural philosophy at the time: the conviction that all truths — scientific, mystical, and religious — were interconnected and could lead to a complete understanding of the universe. Natural philosophy was, in essence, the study of nature using reason and observation, with the goal of uncovering the underlying principles of the physical world.

Though this approach would eventually fragment into separate disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and biology, the Renaissance and Enlightenment natural philosophers laid the groundwork for what we now understand as modern science. Curiosity drove their explorations and led them to profound discoveries, not only in science but also in how we understand the universe as a whole.

The Psychological Impact of External Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation

On an individual level, this can be understood through the lens of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. The 1973 experiment by Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett demonstrated the “overjustification effect,” which occurs when external rewards diminish intrinsic interest in an activity. In the study, a group of preschool children who initially enjoyed drawing for pleasure were promised a reward for doing so. As a result, their intrinsic interest in the activity declined. Subsequently, these children were less inclined to draw on their own compared to children who did not expect a reward. This finding illustrates how the introduction of external incentives can undermine genuine interest and the natural enjoyment that initially existed toward the activity (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).

Just as the overjustification effect reveals how external rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation, the pressure to publish shifts research from a pursuit of discovery to a goal of external validation. This focus on output often overshadows the natural curiosity and fulfillment that drive meaningful inquiry, reducing research to a task rather than a journey of intellectual exploration.

The Neuroscience of Curiosity and Learning

Research on curiosity and memory, led by Matthias Gruber and colleagues (2014), used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study how curiosity affects brain activity and learning. In the experiment, participants were presented with trivia questions designed to evoke different levels of curiosity. Before showing them the answers, participants rated how curious they were to know the answer. They then had to wait a short interval (around 10 seconds) before receiving the answer, generating a state of anticipation.

During this wait, the researchers measured brain activity, specifically in dopaminergic areas associated with reward processing, such as the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. It was observed that the higher the level of curiosity, the more activity there was in these areas of the brain, suggesting that curiosity activates the brain’s reward circuits even before obtaining the answer.

An interesting aspect of the experiment is that, immediately after the trivia question, participants were shown an image of a face unrelated to the trivia. Surprisingly, participants who had shown higher curiosity about the trivia question were more likely to remember the faces presented, despite their lack of relevance to the main task. This demonstrated that the state of curiosity not only enhances memory about relevant content but also increases retention of irrelevant information due to the activation of the brain’s dopaminergic circuits (Gruber, Gelman, & Ranganath, 2014).

This effect of curiosity on memory reveals that learning driven by genuine interest engages the brain more deeply, enhancing retention beyond immediate goals. Curiosity strengthens not only relevant recall but also the ability to remember incidental details, underscoring the broader cognitive benefits of a curiosity-driven mindset.

The Broader Impact of Externalizing Curiosity Rewards

In contrast to the era of natural philosophers like Newton, Galileo, or Descartes, the current academic landscape often limits expansive exploration due to the externalization of curiosity rewards. This externalization manifests through societal pressures, institutional demands, and performance metrics that prioritize measurable outputs over intrinsic motivation. The “publish or perish” culture, for instance, compels researchers to focus on producing a high volume of publications, often at the expense of pursuing genuinely innovative or interdisciplinary work (Hirsch, 2005).

Sociologists have extensively examined how these external pressures shape academic behavior. Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of “academic capital” describes how scholars accumulate recognition and prestige within the academic field by adhering to its norms and expectations (Bourdieu, 1988). This accumulation often requires conforming to established paradigms and focusing on narrowly defined research areas that are more likely to yield publishable results. As a result, the intrinsic joy of exploration and the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake can become overshadowed by the need for external validation.

Robert Merton’s “Matthew Effect” further illustrates this phenomenon, where recognition and resources tend to accumulate with established scientists, reinforcing existing hierarchies and discouraging newcomers from pursuing unconventional ideas (Merton, 1968). This effect stifles creativity and discourages risk-taking, as researchers may feel compelled to align with dominant trends to secure funding and recognition. The commercialization and commodification of knowledge have also introduced market-driven dynamics into academia. Scholars like Henry Giroux argue that neoliberal policies have transformed universities into businesses, where knowledge is treated as a commodity and education as a product (Giroux, 2014). This shift places emphasis on outputs that can be quantified and monetized, such as patents, publications, and grants, further externalizing the rewards of curiosity.

The externalization of curiosity rewards through societal and institutional pressures leads to several profound effects. Firstly, it results in the fragmentation of knowledge as hyper-specialization creates isolated silos of expertise, hindering interdisciplinary collaboration and a holistic understanding of complex problems (Jacobs & Frickel, 2009). This fragmentation limits the ability to address multifaceted issues that require integrated approaches across different fields.

Secondly, the focus on short-term, measurable outputs discourages long-term, fundamental research that may not have immediate applications but is essential for significant breakthroughs (Kuhn, 1962). Researchers may prioritize projects that promise quick results and publishable findings over those that explore deeper, more uncertain avenues of inquiry. This shift not only hampers innovation but also diminishes the potential for transformative discoveries that arise from sustained curiosity-driven investigation.

Additionally, the erosion of intrinsic motivation is a significant consequence of externalizing curiosity rewards. As external incentives overshadow intrinsic interest, researchers may experience decreased satisfaction and creativity in their work, aligning with the overjustification effect observed in psychology (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). This diminished intrinsic motivation can lead to burnout, reduced engagement, and a decline in the overall quality of research, as the passion for discovery is replaced by the pursuit of accolades and recognition.

Furthermore, institutional pressures can exacerbate inequalities within academia. Those with more resources or established reputations have advantages in accumulating external rewards, perpetuating disparities and making it more difficult for underrepresented or emerging scholars to advance (Van den Brink & Benschop, 2012). This inequity not only limits diversity within academic fields but also restricts the range of perspectives and ideas that contribute to scientific and intellectual progress.

These broader effects highlight the urgent need to reevaluate how society and institutions incentivize research and learning. By recognizing and addressing the externalization of curiosity rewards, it may be possible to foster an environment that values intrinsic motivation, encourages interdisciplinary exploration, and promotes equitable opportunities for innovation. Cultivating such an environment is essential for sustaining the genuine pursuit of knowledge and ensuring that curiosity remains at the heart of academic and scientific endeavors.

Embracing Philomathy for Personal and Societal Advancement

On a personal level, embracing curiosity for the sake of discovery brings both fulfillment and cognitive growth. Approaches like project-based learning (PBL) and inquiry-based methods promote not only deep understanding but also long-term retention and a genuine love of learning (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008; Thomas, 2000). Engaging in diverse disciplines fosters creativity and enhances problem-solving abilities (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This mindset — valuing exploration over mere accumulation — reflects philomathy.

Philomathy is the love of learning for its own sake, driven by curiosity rather than external rewards. By cultivating this passion, we not only enrich our personal and intellectual lives but also contribute to a larger culture of discovery that propels human progress.

“Genius is no more than childhood recaptured at will, childhood equipped now with man’s physical means to express itself, and with the analytical mind that enables it to bring order into the sum of experience, involuntarily amassed.”
— Charles Baudelaire, The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays

References

• Barron, B., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2008). Teaching for meaningful learning: A review of research on inquiry-based and cooperative learning. Edutopia.
• Dick, A. (1981). Emmy Noether 1882–1935. In The Noether Theorems: Invariance and Conservation Laws in the Twentieth Century (pp. 1–30). Springer.
• Dry, S. (2014). The Newton Papers: The Strange and True Odyssey of Isaac Newton’s Manuscripts. Oxford University Press.
• Estes, N. (2019). Ynes Mexia: Botanical Trailblazer. Journal of Women’s History, 31(2), 150–154.
• Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–496.
• Hirsch, J. E. (2005). An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(46), 16569–16572.
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• Kremer, G. R. (1987). George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol. Oxford University Press.
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• McGowan, C. (2001). The Dragon Seekers: How an Extraordinary Circle of Fossilists Discovered the Dinosaurs and Paved the Way for Darwin. Basic Books.
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• Westfall, R. S. (1993). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press.
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• Engel, S. (2011). Children’s need to know: Curiosity in schools. Harvard Educational Review, 81(4), 625–645.
• Engel, S. (2015). The Hungry Mind: The Origins of Curiosity in Childhood. Harvard University Press.
• Jirout, J., & Klahr, D. (2012). Children’s scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. Developmental Review, 32(2), 125–160.
• Kidd, C., & Hayden, B. Y. (2015). The psychology and neuroscience of curiosity. Neuron, 88(3), 449–460.
• Kidd, C., Piantadosi, S. T., & Aslin, R. N. (2012). The Goldilocks effect: Human infants allocate attention to visual sequences that are neither too simple nor too complex. PLoS One, 7(5), e36399.
• Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. International Universities Press.
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• Gallant, Tricia Bertram (2008). “21st-century forces shaping academic integrity”. ASHE Higher Education Report. 3 (5): 65–78.

References

• Deci, E. L. (1972). The effects of contingent and noncontingent rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 8(2), 217–229.

• Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–496.

• Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129–137.

• Newton, I. (1999). The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (I. B. Cohen & A. Whitman, Trans.). University of California Press. (Original work published 1687)
• Inside A Genius Mind — Google Arts & CultureDear Joscha,

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critica de la curiosidad